THE VEDIC AGE
The Vedic age spans almost a millenium ( C.1.500-500 BC ) of Indian history , a period which witnessed crucial changes in north India . For its reconstruction , textual evidence ( the Vedas ) formed the sole basis till very recently . However , excavations conducted in Punjab , Uttar Pradesh , Northern Rajasthan , along the Indus and Ghaggar rivers over the last 40 years have unearthed valuable archaeological evidences . This has resulted in a clearer understanding of the processes of socio - economic changes . Nevertheless , area of uncertainty and debate remain , as is evident for instance with reference to the ' Aryan problem
👉The ' Aryan ' Problem
The voluminous body of religious texts , the Vedas , are though to have been composed by the Aryans . It was believed by the traditional historians and archaeologists that the Indo - Aryans migrated from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent in several stages or waves ( see the Box on Orientalists ) . The Aryans had a common original home , from where some groups migrated to Europe and ohters to the East . They are distinguished from the non - Aryan Harappans of the preceding period . Scholars have found similarities in the languages used in the Rigveda and the Avesta , the oldest Iranian texts , older to the Rigveda , but the debate regarding the original home of the Aryans is no longer valid . It is because the concept of a common racial identity of the Aryans has now been proved false . Though historians still believe in a common linguistic identity and some , on this basis , continue to insist upon the theory of Aryan migration , It has been proved false because there is no archaeological proof to suggest Aryan migration around 1500 BC that might have destroyed the Harappan civilization and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization . Recent excavations at Bhagvanpura , Dadheri ( Haryana ) and Manada Jammu ) have shown that the late Harappan pottery and PGW ( Painted Gray Ware ) were found together without any breaks . The Aryan invasion is , therefore , at best a vague concept , related to linguistic similarities between people . This is despite the fact that the Rigveda repeatedly refers to hostilities and wars between different groups . It is better to call it a less dramatic
Early Vedic Society
The Rigvedic Samhita comprises 10 books or mandals of which Books II to VII are considered to be the oldest and belong specifically to the Early Vedic phase. Books I, VIII, 1X and X are considered to be late additions to the Samhita. However, even the earlier books are by no means free from interpolations, as is evident from the references to agriculture in Book IV, which is generally regarded as late. The geographical area referred to in the RV includes those drained by the western tributaries of the Indus; the eastern limit formed by the Yamuna and the Ganga. Within this area, the valleys of the Indus, Saraswati and Drasavati as well as the five rivers of Punjab seem to have formed the core area. This area was perhaps the centre of a variety of cultures indicating that in material terms at least, the "coming' of the Aryans did not result in the imposition of a uniform pattern. It thus serves as an effective correction to the view that the Aryans swept away or destroyed everything in their path and created totally new and fresh forms and systems. Some at- tempts have been made to correlate specific cultures with the invaders or migrants. These cultures, in particular, seem to have links with the kind of socio-economic structure which a study of RV provides, viz. the Gandhara Grave culture, the metery H Culture and the non-iron using Painted Grey Ware and Grey Ware culture sites of Punjab and Haryana, S which occasionally overlap with the late Harappan phase in this area. However, other such archaeological evidence as is available from the geographical area referred to in the RV at present, is at best corroborative of the text.
Economy:
The early Vedic society appears to have been primarily pastoral. Hymns from the RV yield extensive evi- dence of the importance of cattle in the early Vedic society. The term gau is referred to as many as 176 times in relevant Mandalas, as well as in prayers for pasu a term which in- cluded goats, sheeps, horses and men as well. Further, the word used to denote a wealthy man, Gomat literally means a man who possesses cattle. Many words for battle, such as gavisthi' also imply a search for cattle, raids being recog- nised as a legitimate means of acquiring animals. The raja or a chief is referred to as gopati, the lord or protector of cattle; and the term for daughter is duhitri. She also milks the cattle. Godhuli is used as a term for a measurement of time. Distance is called gavyuti. This emphasis on cattle is to some extent corroborated by the evidence from PGW sites such as Bhagwanpura and Dadheri from where a fair amount of animal bones, especially of cattle, sheep and goat have been recovered from contemporaneous levels.
cattle
The exact relations of production in pastoral economy are not very clear. It is posSsible that animals were herded in common and it is likely that cattle were owned by the large patrilineal family which gave rise to the concept of gotra. However, pastoral lands were under the control of the whole community and there is some evidence to suggest the cattle obtained in raids were distributed through assemblies suchc as the gana and parisad. Nevertheless, not all members of the community had equal access to such animals and it is likely that the leaders in such raids, as well as their closest supporters received a larger share than others. Further, cattle ed an important item of dana-gifts given to priests commonly by the raja or the rajanya-and it was probably a part of the presentations or tribute offered to the chief by the members of the clan or vis. Thus a certain inequality in access to cattle wealth may be discerned, with rulers and priests probably acquiring greater control over both animals and cattle products than the vis. This process of differentia- tion accentuated over a period of time, It is also suggested that the priests or warriors who thus acquired more cattle than they could manage, probably leased these out to other members of the clan, thus strengthening ties of dependence.
AGRICULTURE
THE evidence regarding agriculture is much more limited and suggests its relative unimportance. Most of the refer- ences to agriculture belong to a later date. Apart from Yaye or barley, no other grains are mentioned. Land or grair do not figure as objects of dispute unlike cattle, nor is Jane mentioned as an aritcle of donation in the danastutis. There are also no prayers to obtain land, and chiefs are not expectec to protect land.
IRON
Early Vedic period did not use iron tochnology. Nor did copper, with which they were familian h4ve as much value in agricultural operations as iromimplements. Stone tools were used and these are mentionedin the RV. Fire was used to burn down forest cover and shifting agriculture was practised. Further, the region receivea low rainfall and all the rivers mentioned in the RV are known to phange their courses frequently, Without the fecilitics of large scale irigation which were not developed in this period, the alluvial lands near the rivers couldinot be cuivated on a permanent basis. The tools used focagrioultinl operations were fairly simple. These included theaneala or Stra (the plough), the phala (ploughshare) which was prabably of wood, the khanitra (hoe), the datra sickio) andethe parasue (axe). They were probably used for Sachng oran shifing cultivation. The evi- depce of pastoratism avallan khirting cultivation suggests that the peoplewre cer nondatio or semi-nomadic. They moved out of then vilages for a cortain period of time in orden to feed thei cattle.
LAND
Land Individual ownership was virtually unknown. It seems land was held in common, although plots were probably periodically allotted to the large patrilineal family. Cultivation appears to have been undertaken by members of the family unit, as there is no reference to hired labourèrs or slaves engaged in agriculture. However, there may have been a certain differentiation between the vis, engaged in the actual process of production on the common land, and the rajanya or priests who probably participated less actively in the task and who probably acquired a share of the produce as bali.
CRAFTS
References to craft specialists are relatively sparse in the RV. The groups mentioned include leather workers, wheel makers, smiths and potters. None of these groups were considered to be of low status. This is probably due to the fact that some of them, such as wheel makers, smiths or leather workers may have played an important role in manufacturing chariots, which were crucial for success in battle; the horse- drawn chariots possibly explaining the initial success of the Aryans. In the case of pottery, the basic technique used is similar to that of the Harappan. So are the colours (black or red), but the forms of the vessel-urns, carinated vessels and footed vases-as well as the decorations-stars, rings, dots and mythical peacocks and bulls-are new. Weaving appears to have been a domestic craft, under the control of women in the household. Wool obtained from sheep was possibly the raw material as there are no references to cotton in the RV.
TRADE
We have no references to the sale or purchase of crafts, and references to trade are also extremely limited, possibly implying a barter system with cattle as an item of exchange. Long distance trade was also unknown and the word "Samudra' possibly refers to the mouths of the Indus rather than to the sea itself. However, other means of exchange and distribution were apparantly significant.
TAX
In the first phase, as noted earlier, the booty obtained through warfare was redistributed. Apart from cattle, this must have included horses, women, slaves and possibly, at a later stage cultivated land. Such a distribution, which took place in assemblies such as the Vidhata or the gana probably ensured that the rajanya obtained the continued support of the vis on the one hand, which was indispensable in a situa- tion where the vis constituted the militia, and the priests on the other, as prayers and sacrifices performed by the latter ostensibly ensured divine support and legitimisation. Apart from the distribution of booty acquired through aids, there was Bali. Bali was evidently obtained both from who were subjugated. In the former case, it appears to have heen voluntary and in the nature of a presentation. The vis probably brought bali as means of pleasing the raja possibly on occasions of sacrifices and feasts. Bali in later literature is regarded as a tax. The constituents of bali may have included cattle, dairy products and grains and from hostile groups it may have included metal or metal objects. A part of the bali constituted a source of income for the raja or rajanya. Another part was used in sacrificial offerings. Another to provide for communal feasts which ac- companied sacrifices and a part distributed to priests either as dakshina or as dana. The last was done by him to acquire prestige as is evident from the danastutis, the hymns com- posed by priests in praise of generous patrons. Thus, as in the case of booty, the distribution associated with bali was asymmetrical. However, such disparities may not have been glaring in a predominantly pastoral set-up where both the torm and quantity of the surplus would have made large scale accumulation difficult. The early vedic society was in many respects egalitarian.
Society
The early vedic society was a tribal society in which social relations based on kinship ties were predomi- nant, The society was not divided according to caste lines, and even the rajas (kings), the purohits (priests), the artisans etc. were parts of the clan networks. The tribe was referred to as the jana, the largest unit and many references to dif- ferent tribes are found in the Rig Veda. Inter-tribal conflicts vere frequent, an example being the Battle of the Ten Kings mentioned in the RV. Some of the tribes which fought in this battle were the Bharatas, the Purus, the Vadus, the Druhyus, the Anus and the Turvasus. Tribal conflicts as mentioned earlier, were related to cattle raids, cattle thefts etc. The chief of the tribe was the raja or the gopati. He was the leader in battle and the protector of the tribe. His office was not based on heredity but he was selected from the clans- men. The warrior group was the rajanya. Many clans (vis) formed a tribe. The repeated mention of the vis and the jana in the RV would indicate the importance of kinship-this only served to order the social structure, but also probably restricted horizontal splits within the community, though there is evidence for a certain amount of fission of branches of established units probably moving off in search of fresh pastures or cultivable lands. The four-fold Varna System on the other hand was virtu- ally absent. There are only fourteen references to brahmans, nine to kshatriyas and one to the shudra, the last one being referred to only in the context of the Purusasukta', the cosmic man. groups, The basic social unit was the patriarchal family (Kula). This appears to have been fairly large, probably spanning three or four generations and may have included the parents of both the bride and the bridegroom. It was probably the basic unit of production and consumption. The status of women in early Vedic society is complex. That women played a certain part in the productive pro- cess is evident from the term duhitri as well as from their nvolvement in activities such as weaving . Further , we have references to women seers of Vedic hymns . Child marriage was unknown . However , the society appears to have been organised patrilineally and while there were prayers for the birth of sons in particular or praja or for offspring in general , there are none for daughters Further , most of the major deities in the carly Vedic pantheon are male , which would possibly indicate male domination on the divine plane as well . Moreover , there are no indications to suggest that women could occupy the highest positions of outhority and prestige — those of priests or the raja There are occasional references to hostile groups such as the dasa , dasyu and pani . The term das a later refers to slaves , but in the Rigvedic context , they as well as the dasyus are described as rich , possessing cattle . They lived in fortified settlements , were dark complexioned and snub nosed , worshippers of the phallus The panis , according to the RV , were rich in cattle and treasure . Further , they evidently did not practise sacrifice and hence were regarded as hostile . These groups fought and befriended each other from time to time and one cannot regard them as separate racial or linguistic groups . For example , the most famous chief mentioned in the RV is Sudasa , who led the Bharata tribe in the Battle of the Ten Kings over the division of water of the river Ravi . His very name indicates connections with the dasas . However , the presence of different groups in the same area might have contributed to the emergence of the Varna system .
Polity
The tribal polity was not completely egalitarian . A division is found in the RV itself between the rajanyas , or those who fought the wars and were credited to be the senior lineage . The rest of the clansmen or the vis formed the junior lineage . Though none of the groups occupied a distinct social hicrarchy , intra and inter - group conflicts , together with the distribution system , helped create divisions in the society . The clans and vis held large vajnas or sacrificies to help the warrior groups winning the wars . In these yajnas , the officiating priest or the purohita acted as the mediator between his clansmen and God . He also invoked Gods blessings for the tribal chief for his success in the wars . With the growing incidence of conflicts and fights , y ajnas or sacrifices also became important and the purohita assumed a special status in the society . In the later part of the period , they received a major share of the gifts from the rajas , and assumed a superior position vis - a - vis the other clan members The tribal chief or the raja assumed importance on account of wars , etc. and the division between the senior and the junior lineage became sharper . At what point of time these political distinctions became apparent is difficult to state , but the 10th book of the RV contains the Purusa Sukta hymn , where it is stated that Brahmana , Rajanya , Vaisya and Sudra sprang respectively from the mouth , arms , thighs and feet of the cosmic man ( Purushasva ) and these names later signified the four castes . And in the later Vedic texts , we find evidence of the superior rajany a groups , assuming the status of the Kshatria - a separate vara by itself .
Tribal assemblies , eg , the Gana , Vidhata , Sabha and Samiti are mentioned in the RV The Sabha may have been the council of select clan members while the Samiti was a general tribal assembly , comprising the whole clan . These assemblies performed the functions of the government and were also involved in the selection of the raja from the clansmen . They thus kept the power of the raja and rajanya in check . However , we do not find , well defined political hierarchy in the early Vedic set up.
👉 Religion
Rigvedic people venerated the natural forces around them ( like wind , water , rain , thunder , fire , etc. ) which they could not control , and invested nature with divinity conceived in human forms , which were mostly masculine Very few female deities were venerated . The religion which reflected a patriarchical society was one of primitive animism . Indra , the God of strength , who was invoked to destroy the cnemies . He was the God of thunder and rain , and could not be vanquished . The concept of the tribal chief , who was a war lord is also found represented in the character of Indra . Agni , next in importance to Indra , was the God of fire . He was considered to be an intermediary between heaven and earth , 1.e. between God and man . Marriages were solemnized in his presence . The purifying nature of fire was symbolized by Agni The importance of Agni can be related to the frequency of yajna or sacrifice in the early Vedic society . It was thought that the offering to Agmi were carried to the Gods in the form of smoke , Taruna personified water , and he was the upholder of the natural order of the universe . Yama was the God of death and had an important place in the early Vedic religious belief . The Ashwins were the twin Gods of heaven . There were many other Gods , eg . Dyaus , the Sky God , Mitra , God of light : Prajanya , a rain deity : Prithvi , the earth Goddess , Aditi , the mother Goddess , etc. Hosts of celestial beings like Gandharvas , Apsara , Maruts to whom pravers and hymns were addressed in the RV , are also referred to The numerous deities that are lauded in the Vedas , suggests polytheism , although some scholors discern a strong sense of underlying unity . Several hymns appear to be definitely monotheistic in tone , while others are distinctly pantheistic . A very personal relationship existed between the Vedic Aryan and the Gods he worshipped . Religion was not based on magic or ritual formulae ; rather it stressed direct communication with the Gods through sacrifices , hymns , etc. Priests merely assisted in the proper omanace of the sacrifices The Vedic religion was sacrificial characteristic of a pastoral society where animal sacrifice is rampant in order to get rid of the older animals who are not economically useful . Sacrifices or Yajnas were perfomed to invoke the Gods for boons - either victory in battles or for acquisition of cattle , sons etc. In other words sacrifies were performed with the aim of securing material gains . Gods were neither worshipped for the spiritual upliftment of the people nor for any other abstract philosophical concept . Thus the Vedic religion reflected the patriarchical , pastoral society and was materialistic in perspective
The Rigveda offers no consistent theory regarding life after death . According to some passages , the dead dwelt in the realm of yama . The dead were either buried or cremated
The Later Vedic Period
This period extends roughly from 1,000 to 600 BC . There are both literary as well as archaeological sources to study this period The later additions specially the 10th Mandala to the Rigveda Samhita and the Sama , the Yajur and the Atharva Teda Samhitas are the other Vedic texts which are assigned to the later Vedic phase . The Sama Veda Samhita is a book of prayers and chants which are from the Rigveda , modified and set to tunc for the explicit purpose of singing them during rituals . The Yajurveda elaborates the rituals which accompany the recitation of hymns . The rituals and the hymns in this Samhita document the social and political milieu of this period . The Atharvaveda contains the folk tradition of this period and represents popular religion . It is a good source for understanding the socio - religious conditions of the common people . These samhitas are followed by Brahmanas . They explain the social and religious aspects of the rituals and throw light on the Vedic Society . Besides , we have the earliest Aranyakas and Upanishads as well The archaeological evidence for this period is substantial . It is now being generally accepted that the iron - using phase of the PGW culture broadly corresponds with the geographical arca referred to in later Vedic literature . This area has been characterised as the Ganga -- Jamuna doab . However , regions to the east , such as Kosala , Kashi and Videha and Magadha are also referred to , though they do not form the core . It is possible that changes such as the dessication of the Sarasvati and / or demographic pressure may have led to this shift . More than 700 PGW sites have been found in the area . Some important PGW sites are Panipat , Purana Qila . Atranjikhera , Ahichhatra , Hastina - pur , Kurukshetra , Bhagvanpura , Noh and Jakhera . These settlements show a broad similarity with the material culture reflected in the texts in terms of housing , the use of metals , knowledge of crops , and animals and pottery and serve as a useful corrective to the texts , which often exaggerate the material bases of the society
👉 Economy
The widening of the geographical horizons made possible by the availability of vast tracts of fertile alluvial lands of the Ganga - Yamuna doab and the middle Ganga valley , was accompanied by a marked shift in economic production , from relative pre - dominance of pastoralism to an increasing emphasis on agriculture . This is not to deny the continued importance of pastoralism as is testified by the later Vedic texts Initially , the land was cleared by means of fire . Later burning was supplemented by the use of socketed iron axe found at Noh ( iron was introduced around 1.000-800 BC ) . The growing importance of agriculture is attested from the later sections ofthe RV , which refer to such operations as sowing , cutting and threshing , and winnowing . There are several references in later literature to ploughs driven by oxen The plough was probably made of hard wood . It is possible that iron ploughshares , which must have been more effective , were used towards the end of the period , an example of which has been found from Jakhera . A fairly wide variety of crops is attested in both the literary and the archaeological records . Yava or barley continued to be important but a new grain . Vrihi or rice assumes importance as the staple diet of the people . Rice transplantation was probably still not practised , so the yields would have been low . Other grains include wheat or Godhuma which appears to have been relatively insignificant . The texts refer to pulses , such as moong ( mudga ) and urad ( mass ) , millet ( svamaka ) and sesame ( tila ) and also to sugarcane.
However , we now know that the later Vedic period was neither purely agrarian , nor was it well advanced in iron technology . The rich iron ore mines of Bihar were still not exploited and the technology of smelting iron was primitive
Mixed farming
which included cultivation and herding was the occupational norm of this period . It led to the rise of sedentary settlements . PGW settlements show both an increase in number and a remarkable stability lasting over two or three centuries , which would suggest a fairly strong agricultural base . The growing importance of agriculture necessitated changes in the organisation of agricultural production . The concept of land ownership was still rather nebulous . There are no references to prayers for land in the sacrificial context . Further , land does not figure as an item of dana till the very end of this period . Nevertheless , the question of the granting of land and its merits and demerits are debated for the first time in the legend of Vishwakarma Bhawana . Further , the rights of the vis are explicitly recognised in the Satapatha Brahmana , which states that the kshatriya can grant land only with the permission of the vis ' . This textual reference suggests communal ownership of land over which the vis had the major participatory rights .
What is more significant is that the patrilineal household , the griha was recognized as the basic unit of agricultural production . There was a consequent shift from a situation where the entire vis or clan owned the land , to one in which the grahapati emerges as the de facto owner of land , which he cultivated with the assistance of members of the family , as well as a limited number of Sudras and slaves . Thus , the vis / vaisya , characterising the household economy , become the mainstay of the economy . They were the producing class in the society and were the source of wealth and subsistence for the Kshatriyas ( rajanya ) and brahmanas ( priests ) who did not actively participate in food production The redistribution of booty secured through war ( warfare was recognized as means of livelihood for the kshatriyas ) was also probably confined to the upper two categories of the Varna hierarchy
Bali appears to have become less voluntary and was prob- ably obtained through the use of force on certain occasions. The importance of bali as a source of income for the kshatri- yas increased partly owing to the decreasing importance of alternative earnings from cattle-raids, and partly to the fact that agricultural producers, the vaisyas, provided a greater and more certain surplus. The vaisyas gave 'balı' out of gratitude for protecting the cultivated lands. The bali thus acquired by kshatriyas was used partly in sacrificial offerings and feasts and partly as dakshina offered to the priests. A significant development of interest here is the increase in sacrifices, exemplified by the growing importance of rites such as the rajasuya, the vajapeya, and the ash- vamedha. This implies both growing expenditure in general, as well as a greater concentration of wealth in the hands of the two upper Varnas. A certain amount of development is evident in various crafts, especially as a result of the use of iron during this period. References to the metal (krsnayas or syamasa) and to smelters and smiths, together with archaeological evidence of iron weapons and tools from the PGW sites confirm the importance of metallurgy. What, however, is significant, is the preponderance of weapons over tools, which would suggest that the impact of iron technology on agriculture was rather limited during this period. It also comes to the notice that the technique of metal extraction was primitive and wasteful . other crafts such as leather working, pottery-reflected in the standardised, wheel-thrown PGW, carpentry, con- struction and the manufacture of jewellery were also prac- tised. The manufacture of glass was also known. Weaving was still practised by women within the household. There seems to have been some development of trade and there are explicit references to the sea during this period. Further, apart from cattle serving as a medium of exchange, there are frequent references to the niska, a gold ornament, possibly representing a fixed weight of metal and the sata- mana, a weight of gold/silver, which consisted of a hundred smaller units known as the krsnala, which possibly preceded the fully developed coinage system which emerged in the 6th century BC. Towns or nagars are also referred to in the latest part of the Vedic literature under consideration. These may have been the political centres rather than centres for the manufacture of crafts. But these point to a growing socio- economic differentiation. The archaeological records also yield evidences of the beginnings of urbanisation from sites such as Ahichhatra, Kausambi and Hastinapur. Society Here the growing importance assigned to the Varna hierarchy is the most noticeable change. The Varna distinction could have been in the beginning primarily be- tween the Arya and the Dasa: the Arya Varna probably divided into senior and junior lineages-the rajanya and the vis respectively. However, gradually the system widened to include the brahmanas on the one hand and the shudras on the other. The brahmanas, the highest category, earlier merely one of the seventeen kind of priests, become virtually synonymous with priesthood during this phase.
Considerable stress is laid on the cooperation between the brahmanas and rajanyas. The declining status of the vis and the ascendancy of the kshatriyas and the brahmanas has already been noted. They both had to cooperate to ensure the 'proper' ordering of society, which implied the subordination of the vaisya and shudra to the rajanya and the brahmana on one hand, and the subordination of the rajanya in turn to the brahmanas. This was fraught with tension, as both the categories claimed pre-eminence. Nevertheless, mutual dependence served to cement ties, as the brahmana was dependent on the rajanya for material support while the latter depended on the former for legitimisation. Such legitimisation was especially important in a situation where other claims to positions of power or authority such as heredity and primogeniture, were not universally recognized. It also seems that the vis resisted the process of distancing Trom the kshatriyas to some extent, as there are numerous rituals to ensure that the vis does not abandon or turn hostile towards the kshatriyas. Simultaneously, the vis in its turn also had differentiation among themselves with the growth of settled agriculture. The more prosperous households probably became the vaisya and in the case of especially successful individuals, the gramani. The poorer members of the vis were degraded into shu- dras. The grihapatis too held yajnas, and thus, a part of their wealth gọt channelled to the brahmanas. The references to shudras point that they might háve in- cluded artisans and labourers. Slaves, both dasas and dasis are mentioned. But neither the slaves nor shudras appear to be very significant from the socio-economic point of view and both were probably involved in production only and that too to a limited extent. Shudras were denied the right to perform sacrifices. The Varna system get further tied up with the concent of Dharma, to establish a systematic functioning of the society. However, the Varna-dharma system was not properly developed in the Vedic society. There are references to certain special rites such as Vratya Stoma which were devised to incorporate outsiders within the Aryan fold. They suggest that the amalgamation of the Aryan and pre-Aryan social institutions was going on. Certain new deities, such as Rudra, become increas- ingly important and some possibly indigenous rites such as agnicayana are also seen to be incorporated within the Vedic rituals. There are clear indications that the women were being increasingly subordinated. The notion of untouchability was, however, still absent. (The institution of gotra appeared during this period. It seems to have been particularly important for brahmanas while later, as against tribal endogamy (marriage within the tribe in order to maintain the purity of the tribe), there developed a full-fledged system of gotra exogamy (marriage gotra ) , signifying widening socio - political ties . Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor and marriages could not take place between couples belonging to the same gotra . Three ashrams , i.e. stages of life were prescribed and these stages were represented by the brahmacharya ( studentship ) , grihasta ( households ) , vanaprastha ( partial retirement from houschold life by living in the forest ) . The fourth stage of life , i.e. sanyasa ( or complete retirement from active participation in the world ) was first mentioned in the Upanishads . Education which began with an investiture ceremony , Upanayan , was the prerogative of the upper classes , mostly boys . But sometimes even girls were initiated
👉 Polity
Here we see the emergence of Janapadas , such as those of the Kuru - Panchala , with their authority extending over the upper and middle reaches of the Ganga - Jamuna doab . While Jana was used in the sense of people or tribe in the Rigvedic period , now the Janapada meant the area where the tribe settled . Consequently , the nature of chiefship also changed The rajan or the chief was no longer involved in cattle raids alone , but emerged as the protector of the territory where his tribesmen settled . The rajanyas , who were of a superior lineage during the Rigvedic period , now became the kshatriyas , ie those who held power over dominions , which is the literal meaning of the word , kshatriya . The vis had to pay presentations to the kshatriya , in lieu of the latter's protections and thus the status of the vis was made subordinate to the kshatriya lineage Bali and bhaga gradually assumed forms of regular tributes and taxes The Sabha became more important than the Samiti during this period . References to rajas in the assembly or the Sabha suggests that they helped the King in his duties . The office of the raja was not based solely on birth , but the choice of rajas was restricted to the kshatriyas . In the absence of firmly established principles of heredity and primogeniture , consecratory rituals become very important for the ruler in order to assert his authority and proclaim his superiority . These sacrifices were found to be relevant in later periods when new kingdoms and new monarchs emerged . They used sacrifices to give religious legitimacy to their power The rajanya , however , was not yet a sovereign . The fact that he was elected and could be removed put severe constraints on his powers since he was answerable to the clan . Also , he did not appoint the other rajas who helped him in carrying out his duties . They were chief's in their own right A republican form of Government was evolved by the shakyas and the lichchhavis in north Bihar The nature of conflicts within the tribes also changed . Fights were no longer mere skirmishes over cattle . The acquisition of land was an important element in these disputes . The growth of population within the tribes provided the necessary impetus for acquiring more territory . Iron weapons and light - wheeled chariots driven by horses raised the efficiency of the fighters . The Mahabharata depicts an intra - clan warefare between theKauravas and the Pandavas of the Kuru clan
👉 Religion
The Vedic religious tradition is documented in the Sama and Yajurveda Samhitas and the Brahmanas , while the non - Vedic or perhaps the folk tradition is documented in the Atharvaveda . The fact that the Atharva relgious tradition was considered to be part of the Vedic literature suggests assimilation of different cultures and beliefs into the Vedic religious system Sacrifices became very important during this period , These assumed both public and private characters . The public sacrifices , eg , Rajasuya , Vajapeya , Asvamedha were conducted on a massive scale , in which the whole community participated . Some ceremonial yajnas were carried out to rejuvenate the earth and add to its fertility The rituals accompanying the sacrifices became elaborate and complicated and needed professional men — the priests . Rules or vidhis for performing each sacrifice were formulated . The offerings , and sacrifices differed according to the needs of the patron or the Yajamana . Sacrifices were now endowed with mystical symbolism and every ritual act was endowed with mysterious power . The priests became the chief beneficiaries and consequently gained in power , wealth and status . The early Vedic Gods who represented natural phenomena were slowly discarded and the personification of natural elements as divine beings became very complex . It was no longer easy to find the natural element which represented a particular God from the hymns of the later Vedic period . The changing status of the deities is in line with the change in the character of the tribes from pastoral to sedentary agricultural groups . Two prominent early Vedic Gods , Indra and Agni lost their importance . Prajapati , the creater became important since creation myths are important in the agrarian people . Rudra , a minor deity in Rigveda became important and Vishnu was conceived as the preserver and protector of the people . Pushan . who protected cattle in the carly Vedic period , now became the God of the shudras . The Atharvaveda recommended widely prevalent , witch craft , spells and magical rites to invoke the Gods of Vedic tradition for reasons which were trivial and individualistic . The Atharvan priests officiated in these religious practices . Many godlings and spirits such as pischachas and rakshasas and so on ( some malevolent and some benevolent ) were invoked either to bring good fortune or to cause havoc and destruction to one's friends and foes , respectively . The Ashvins were entrusted with the protection of agriculture and the killing of rats . Savitri was summoned through prayers to fix a place for a new house . Pushan was invoked to bring harmony and safe delivery of babies , while Surya was invoked to remove demons Some symbolic objects began to be worshipped and signs of idolatry are noticed in later Vedic times .
The doctrines of Karma, Maya, transmigration, identi- fying of individual soul with the Universal soul, and Mukti, which are the foundations of the different systems elaborated by later writers and accepted as the main tenets Hinduism. find their first expression in the Upanishads, which came up at the end of this period. One of the most famous one is the Chhandogya Upanishad. Thus the materialistic aspect of the religion was discarded to raise religion to the realm of philosophy. Most upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brah- mins and rajoa. Occasionally there was a woman thinker. such as Gargi, who participated in debates in royal courts Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, Jabali. He was a student of a brahmin teacher named Gautama; Many of the ideas of the upanishads were later developed by Shankracharya.
The Vedic age spans almost a millenium ( C.1.500-500 BC ) of Indian history , a period which witnessed crucial changes in north India . For its reconstruction , textual evidence ( the Vedas ) formed the sole basis till very recently . However , excavations conducted in Punjab , Uttar Pradesh , Northern Rajasthan , along the Indus and Ghaggar rivers over the last 40 years have unearthed valuable archaeological evidences . This has resulted in a clearer understanding of the processes of socio - economic changes . Nevertheless , area of uncertainty and debate remain , as is evident for instance with reference to the ' Aryan problem
👉The ' Aryan ' Problem
The voluminous body of religious texts , the Vedas , are though to have been composed by the Aryans . It was believed by the traditional historians and archaeologists that the Indo - Aryans migrated from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent in several stages or waves ( see the Box on Orientalists ) . The Aryans had a common original home , from where some groups migrated to Europe and ohters to the East . They are distinguished from the non - Aryan Harappans of the preceding period . Scholars have found similarities in the languages used in the Rigveda and the Avesta , the oldest Iranian texts , older to the Rigveda , but the debate regarding the original home of the Aryans is no longer valid . It is because the concept of a common racial identity of the Aryans has now been proved false . Though historians still believe in a common linguistic identity and some , on this basis , continue to insist upon the theory of Aryan migration , It has been proved false because there is no archaeological proof to suggest Aryan migration around 1500 BC that might have destroyed the Harappan civilization and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization . Recent excavations at Bhagvanpura , Dadheri ( Haryana ) and Manada Jammu ) have shown that the late Harappan pottery and PGW ( Painted Gray Ware ) were found together without any breaks . The Aryan invasion is , therefore , at best a vague concept , related to linguistic similarities between people . This is despite the fact that the Rigveda repeatedly refers to hostilities and wars between different groups . It is better to call it a less dramatic
Early Vedic Society
The Rigvedic Samhita comprises 10 books or mandals of which Books II to VII are considered to be the oldest and belong specifically to the Early Vedic phase. Books I, VIII, 1X and X are considered to be late additions to the Samhita. However, even the earlier books are by no means free from interpolations, as is evident from the references to agriculture in Book IV, which is generally regarded as late. The geographical area referred to in the RV includes those drained by the western tributaries of the Indus; the eastern limit formed by the Yamuna and the Ganga. Within this area, the valleys of the Indus, Saraswati and Drasavati as well as the five rivers of Punjab seem to have formed the core area. This area was perhaps the centre of a variety of cultures indicating that in material terms at least, the "coming' of the Aryans did not result in the imposition of a uniform pattern. It thus serves as an effective correction to the view that the Aryans swept away or destroyed everything in their path and created totally new and fresh forms and systems. Some at- tempts have been made to correlate specific cultures with the invaders or migrants. These cultures, in particular, seem to have links with the kind of socio-economic structure which a study of RV provides, viz. the Gandhara Grave culture, the metery H Culture and the non-iron using Painted Grey Ware and Grey Ware culture sites of Punjab and Haryana, S which occasionally overlap with the late Harappan phase in this area. However, other such archaeological evidence as is available from the geographical area referred to in the RV at present, is at best corroborative of the text.
Economy:
The early Vedic society appears to have been primarily pastoral. Hymns from the RV yield extensive evi- dence of the importance of cattle in the early Vedic society. The term gau is referred to as many as 176 times in relevant Mandalas, as well as in prayers for pasu a term which in- cluded goats, sheeps, horses and men as well. Further, the word used to denote a wealthy man, Gomat literally means a man who possesses cattle. Many words for battle, such as gavisthi' also imply a search for cattle, raids being recog- nised as a legitimate means of acquiring animals. The raja or a chief is referred to as gopati, the lord or protector of cattle; and the term for daughter is duhitri. She also milks the cattle. Godhuli is used as a term for a measurement of time. Distance is called gavyuti. This emphasis on cattle is to some extent corroborated by the evidence from PGW sites such as Bhagwanpura and Dadheri from where a fair amount of animal bones, especially of cattle, sheep and goat have been recovered from contemporaneous levels.
cattle
The exact relations of production in pastoral economy are not very clear. It is posSsible that animals were herded in common and it is likely that cattle were owned by the large patrilineal family which gave rise to the concept of gotra. However, pastoral lands were under the control of the whole community and there is some evidence to suggest the cattle obtained in raids were distributed through assemblies suchc as the gana and parisad. Nevertheless, not all members of the community had equal access to such animals and it is likely that the leaders in such raids, as well as their closest supporters received a larger share than others. Further, cattle ed an important item of dana-gifts given to priests commonly by the raja or the rajanya-and it was probably a part of the presentations or tribute offered to the chief by the members of the clan or vis. Thus a certain inequality in access to cattle wealth may be discerned, with rulers and priests probably acquiring greater control over both animals and cattle products than the vis. This process of differentia- tion accentuated over a period of time, It is also suggested that the priests or warriors who thus acquired more cattle than they could manage, probably leased these out to other members of the clan, thus strengthening ties of dependence.
AGRICULTURE
THE evidence regarding agriculture is much more limited and suggests its relative unimportance. Most of the refer- ences to agriculture belong to a later date. Apart from Yaye or barley, no other grains are mentioned. Land or grair do not figure as objects of dispute unlike cattle, nor is Jane mentioned as an aritcle of donation in the danastutis. There are also no prayers to obtain land, and chiefs are not expectec to protect land.
IRON
Early Vedic period did not use iron tochnology. Nor did copper, with which they were familian h4ve as much value in agricultural operations as iromimplements. Stone tools were used and these are mentionedin the RV. Fire was used to burn down forest cover and shifting agriculture was practised. Further, the region receivea low rainfall and all the rivers mentioned in the RV are known to phange their courses frequently, Without the fecilitics of large scale irigation which were not developed in this period, the alluvial lands near the rivers couldinot be cuivated on a permanent basis. The tools used focagrioultinl operations were fairly simple. These included theaneala or Stra (the plough), the phala (ploughshare) which was prabably of wood, the khanitra (hoe), the datra sickio) andethe parasue (axe). They were probably used for Sachng oran shifing cultivation. The evi- depce of pastoratism avallan khirting cultivation suggests that the peoplewre cer nondatio or semi-nomadic. They moved out of then vilages for a cortain period of time in orden to feed thei cattle.
LAND
Land Individual ownership was virtually unknown. It seems land was held in common, although plots were probably periodically allotted to the large patrilineal family. Cultivation appears to have been undertaken by members of the family unit, as there is no reference to hired labourèrs or slaves engaged in agriculture. However, there may have been a certain differentiation between the vis, engaged in the actual process of production on the common land, and the rajanya or priests who probably participated less actively in the task and who probably acquired a share of the produce as bali.
CRAFTS
References to craft specialists are relatively sparse in the RV. The groups mentioned include leather workers, wheel makers, smiths and potters. None of these groups were considered to be of low status. This is probably due to the fact that some of them, such as wheel makers, smiths or leather workers may have played an important role in manufacturing chariots, which were crucial for success in battle; the horse- drawn chariots possibly explaining the initial success of the Aryans. In the case of pottery, the basic technique used is similar to that of the Harappan. So are the colours (black or red), but the forms of the vessel-urns, carinated vessels and footed vases-as well as the decorations-stars, rings, dots and mythical peacocks and bulls-are new. Weaving appears to have been a domestic craft, under the control of women in the household. Wool obtained from sheep was possibly the raw material as there are no references to cotton in the RV.
TRADE
We have no references to the sale or purchase of crafts, and references to trade are also extremely limited, possibly implying a barter system with cattle as an item of exchange. Long distance trade was also unknown and the word "Samudra' possibly refers to the mouths of the Indus rather than to the sea itself. However, other means of exchange and distribution were apparantly significant.
TAX
In the first phase, as noted earlier, the booty obtained through warfare was redistributed. Apart from cattle, this must have included horses, women, slaves and possibly, at a later stage cultivated land. Such a distribution, which took place in assemblies such as the Vidhata or the gana probably ensured that the rajanya obtained the continued support of the vis on the one hand, which was indispensable in a situa- tion where the vis constituted the militia, and the priests on the other, as prayers and sacrifices performed by the latter ostensibly ensured divine support and legitimisation. Apart from the distribution of booty acquired through aids, there was Bali. Bali was evidently obtained both from who were subjugated. In the former case, it appears to have heen voluntary and in the nature of a presentation. The vis probably brought bali as means of pleasing the raja possibly on occasions of sacrifices and feasts. Bali in later literature is regarded as a tax. The constituents of bali may have included cattle, dairy products and grains and from hostile groups it may have included metal or metal objects. A part of the bali constituted a source of income for the raja or rajanya. Another part was used in sacrificial offerings. Another to provide for communal feasts which ac- companied sacrifices and a part distributed to priests either as dakshina or as dana. The last was done by him to acquire prestige as is evident from the danastutis, the hymns com- posed by priests in praise of generous patrons. Thus, as in the case of booty, the distribution associated with bali was asymmetrical. However, such disparities may not have been glaring in a predominantly pastoral set-up where both the torm and quantity of the surplus would have made large scale accumulation difficult. The early vedic society was in many respects egalitarian.
Society
The early vedic society was a tribal society in which social relations based on kinship ties were predomi- nant, The society was not divided according to caste lines, and even the rajas (kings), the purohits (priests), the artisans etc. were parts of the clan networks. The tribe was referred to as the jana, the largest unit and many references to dif- ferent tribes are found in the Rig Veda. Inter-tribal conflicts vere frequent, an example being the Battle of the Ten Kings mentioned in the RV. Some of the tribes which fought in this battle were the Bharatas, the Purus, the Vadus, the Druhyus, the Anus and the Turvasus. Tribal conflicts as mentioned earlier, were related to cattle raids, cattle thefts etc. The chief of the tribe was the raja or the gopati. He was the leader in battle and the protector of the tribe. His office was not based on heredity but he was selected from the clans- men. The warrior group was the rajanya. Many clans (vis) formed a tribe. The repeated mention of the vis and the jana in the RV would indicate the importance of kinship-this only served to order the social structure, but also probably restricted horizontal splits within the community, though there is evidence for a certain amount of fission of branches of established units probably moving off in search of fresh pastures or cultivable lands. The four-fold Varna System on the other hand was virtu- ally absent. There are only fourteen references to brahmans, nine to kshatriyas and one to the shudra, the last one being referred to only in the context of the Purusasukta', the cosmic man. groups, The basic social unit was the patriarchal family (Kula). This appears to have been fairly large, probably spanning three or four generations and may have included the parents of both the bride and the bridegroom. It was probably the basic unit of production and consumption. The status of women in early Vedic society is complex. That women played a certain part in the productive pro- cess is evident from the term duhitri as well as from their nvolvement in activities such as weaving . Further , we have references to women seers of Vedic hymns . Child marriage was unknown . However , the society appears to have been organised patrilineally and while there were prayers for the birth of sons in particular or praja or for offspring in general , there are none for daughters Further , most of the major deities in the carly Vedic pantheon are male , which would possibly indicate male domination on the divine plane as well . Moreover , there are no indications to suggest that women could occupy the highest positions of outhority and prestige — those of priests or the raja There are occasional references to hostile groups such as the dasa , dasyu and pani . The term das a later refers to slaves , but in the Rigvedic context , they as well as the dasyus are described as rich , possessing cattle . They lived in fortified settlements , were dark complexioned and snub nosed , worshippers of the phallus The panis , according to the RV , were rich in cattle and treasure . Further , they evidently did not practise sacrifice and hence were regarded as hostile . These groups fought and befriended each other from time to time and one cannot regard them as separate racial or linguistic groups . For example , the most famous chief mentioned in the RV is Sudasa , who led the Bharata tribe in the Battle of the Ten Kings over the division of water of the river Ravi . His very name indicates connections with the dasas . However , the presence of different groups in the same area might have contributed to the emergence of the Varna system .
Polity
The tribal polity was not completely egalitarian . A division is found in the RV itself between the rajanyas , or those who fought the wars and were credited to be the senior lineage . The rest of the clansmen or the vis formed the junior lineage . Though none of the groups occupied a distinct social hicrarchy , intra and inter - group conflicts , together with the distribution system , helped create divisions in the society . The clans and vis held large vajnas or sacrificies to help the warrior groups winning the wars . In these yajnas , the officiating priest or the purohita acted as the mediator between his clansmen and God . He also invoked Gods blessings for the tribal chief for his success in the wars . With the growing incidence of conflicts and fights , y ajnas or sacrifices also became important and the purohita assumed a special status in the society . In the later part of the period , they received a major share of the gifts from the rajas , and assumed a superior position vis - a - vis the other clan members The tribal chief or the raja assumed importance on account of wars , etc. and the division between the senior and the junior lineage became sharper . At what point of time these political distinctions became apparent is difficult to state , but the 10th book of the RV contains the Purusa Sukta hymn , where it is stated that Brahmana , Rajanya , Vaisya and Sudra sprang respectively from the mouth , arms , thighs and feet of the cosmic man ( Purushasva ) and these names later signified the four castes . And in the later Vedic texts , we find evidence of the superior rajany a groups , assuming the status of the Kshatria - a separate vara by itself .
Tribal assemblies , eg , the Gana , Vidhata , Sabha and Samiti are mentioned in the RV The Sabha may have been the council of select clan members while the Samiti was a general tribal assembly , comprising the whole clan . These assemblies performed the functions of the government and were also involved in the selection of the raja from the clansmen . They thus kept the power of the raja and rajanya in check . However , we do not find , well defined political hierarchy in the early Vedic set up.
👉 Religion
Rigvedic people venerated the natural forces around them ( like wind , water , rain , thunder , fire , etc. ) which they could not control , and invested nature with divinity conceived in human forms , which were mostly masculine Very few female deities were venerated . The religion which reflected a patriarchical society was one of primitive animism . Indra , the God of strength , who was invoked to destroy the cnemies . He was the God of thunder and rain , and could not be vanquished . The concept of the tribal chief , who was a war lord is also found represented in the character of Indra . Agni , next in importance to Indra , was the God of fire . He was considered to be an intermediary between heaven and earth , 1.e. between God and man . Marriages were solemnized in his presence . The purifying nature of fire was symbolized by Agni The importance of Agni can be related to the frequency of yajna or sacrifice in the early Vedic society . It was thought that the offering to Agmi were carried to the Gods in the form of smoke , Taruna personified water , and he was the upholder of the natural order of the universe . Yama was the God of death and had an important place in the early Vedic religious belief . The Ashwins were the twin Gods of heaven . There were many other Gods , eg . Dyaus , the Sky God , Mitra , God of light : Prajanya , a rain deity : Prithvi , the earth Goddess , Aditi , the mother Goddess , etc. Hosts of celestial beings like Gandharvas , Apsara , Maruts to whom pravers and hymns were addressed in the RV , are also referred to The numerous deities that are lauded in the Vedas , suggests polytheism , although some scholors discern a strong sense of underlying unity . Several hymns appear to be definitely monotheistic in tone , while others are distinctly pantheistic . A very personal relationship existed between the Vedic Aryan and the Gods he worshipped . Religion was not based on magic or ritual formulae ; rather it stressed direct communication with the Gods through sacrifices , hymns , etc. Priests merely assisted in the proper omanace of the sacrifices The Vedic religion was sacrificial characteristic of a pastoral society where animal sacrifice is rampant in order to get rid of the older animals who are not economically useful . Sacrifices or Yajnas were perfomed to invoke the Gods for boons - either victory in battles or for acquisition of cattle , sons etc. In other words sacrifies were performed with the aim of securing material gains . Gods were neither worshipped for the spiritual upliftment of the people nor for any other abstract philosophical concept . Thus the Vedic religion reflected the patriarchical , pastoral society and was materialistic in perspective
The Rigveda offers no consistent theory regarding life after death . According to some passages , the dead dwelt in the realm of yama . The dead were either buried or cremated
The Later Vedic Period
This period extends roughly from 1,000 to 600 BC . There are both literary as well as archaeological sources to study this period The later additions specially the 10th Mandala to the Rigveda Samhita and the Sama , the Yajur and the Atharva Teda Samhitas are the other Vedic texts which are assigned to the later Vedic phase . The Sama Veda Samhita is a book of prayers and chants which are from the Rigveda , modified and set to tunc for the explicit purpose of singing them during rituals . The Yajurveda elaborates the rituals which accompany the recitation of hymns . The rituals and the hymns in this Samhita document the social and political milieu of this period . The Atharvaveda contains the folk tradition of this period and represents popular religion . It is a good source for understanding the socio - religious conditions of the common people . These samhitas are followed by Brahmanas . They explain the social and religious aspects of the rituals and throw light on the Vedic Society . Besides , we have the earliest Aranyakas and Upanishads as well The archaeological evidence for this period is substantial . It is now being generally accepted that the iron - using phase of the PGW culture broadly corresponds with the geographical arca referred to in later Vedic literature . This area has been characterised as the Ganga -- Jamuna doab . However , regions to the east , such as Kosala , Kashi and Videha and Magadha are also referred to , though they do not form the core . It is possible that changes such as the dessication of the Sarasvati and / or demographic pressure may have led to this shift . More than 700 PGW sites have been found in the area . Some important PGW sites are Panipat , Purana Qila . Atranjikhera , Ahichhatra , Hastina - pur , Kurukshetra , Bhagvanpura , Noh and Jakhera . These settlements show a broad similarity with the material culture reflected in the texts in terms of housing , the use of metals , knowledge of crops , and animals and pottery and serve as a useful corrective to the texts , which often exaggerate the material bases of the society
👉 Economy
The widening of the geographical horizons made possible by the availability of vast tracts of fertile alluvial lands of the Ganga - Yamuna doab and the middle Ganga valley , was accompanied by a marked shift in economic production , from relative pre - dominance of pastoralism to an increasing emphasis on agriculture . This is not to deny the continued importance of pastoralism as is testified by the later Vedic texts Initially , the land was cleared by means of fire . Later burning was supplemented by the use of socketed iron axe found at Noh ( iron was introduced around 1.000-800 BC ) . The growing importance of agriculture is attested from the later sections ofthe RV , which refer to such operations as sowing , cutting and threshing , and winnowing . There are several references in later literature to ploughs driven by oxen The plough was probably made of hard wood . It is possible that iron ploughshares , which must have been more effective , were used towards the end of the period , an example of which has been found from Jakhera . A fairly wide variety of crops is attested in both the literary and the archaeological records . Yava or barley continued to be important but a new grain . Vrihi or rice assumes importance as the staple diet of the people . Rice transplantation was probably still not practised , so the yields would have been low . Other grains include wheat or Godhuma which appears to have been relatively insignificant . The texts refer to pulses , such as moong ( mudga ) and urad ( mass ) , millet ( svamaka ) and sesame ( tila ) and also to sugarcane.
However , we now know that the later Vedic period was neither purely agrarian , nor was it well advanced in iron technology . The rich iron ore mines of Bihar were still not exploited and the technology of smelting iron was primitive
Mixed farming
which included cultivation and herding was the occupational norm of this period . It led to the rise of sedentary settlements . PGW settlements show both an increase in number and a remarkable stability lasting over two or three centuries , which would suggest a fairly strong agricultural base . The growing importance of agriculture necessitated changes in the organisation of agricultural production . The concept of land ownership was still rather nebulous . There are no references to prayers for land in the sacrificial context . Further , land does not figure as an item of dana till the very end of this period . Nevertheless , the question of the granting of land and its merits and demerits are debated for the first time in the legend of Vishwakarma Bhawana . Further , the rights of the vis are explicitly recognised in the Satapatha Brahmana , which states that the kshatriya can grant land only with the permission of the vis ' . This textual reference suggests communal ownership of land over which the vis had the major participatory rights .
What is more significant is that the patrilineal household , the griha was recognized as the basic unit of agricultural production . There was a consequent shift from a situation where the entire vis or clan owned the land , to one in which the grahapati emerges as the de facto owner of land , which he cultivated with the assistance of members of the family , as well as a limited number of Sudras and slaves . Thus , the vis / vaisya , characterising the household economy , become the mainstay of the economy . They were the producing class in the society and were the source of wealth and subsistence for the Kshatriyas ( rajanya ) and brahmanas ( priests ) who did not actively participate in food production The redistribution of booty secured through war ( warfare was recognized as means of livelihood for the kshatriyas ) was also probably confined to the upper two categories of the Varna hierarchy
Bali appears to have become less voluntary and was prob- ably obtained through the use of force on certain occasions. The importance of bali as a source of income for the kshatri- yas increased partly owing to the decreasing importance of alternative earnings from cattle-raids, and partly to the fact that agricultural producers, the vaisyas, provided a greater and more certain surplus. The vaisyas gave 'balı' out of gratitude for protecting the cultivated lands. The bali thus acquired by kshatriyas was used partly in sacrificial offerings and feasts and partly as dakshina offered to the priests. A significant development of interest here is the increase in sacrifices, exemplified by the growing importance of rites such as the rajasuya, the vajapeya, and the ash- vamedha. This implies both growing expenditure in general, as well as a greater concentration of wealth in the hands of the two upper Varnas. A certain amount of development is evident in various crafts, especially as a result of the use of iron during this period. References to the metal (krsnayas or syamasa) and to smelters and smiths, together with archaeological evidence of iron weapons and tools from the PGW sites confirm the importance of metallurgy. What, however, is significant, is the preponderance of weapons over tools, which would suggest that the impact of iron technology on agriculture was rather limited during this period. It also comes to the notice that the technique of metal extraction was primitive and wasteful . other crafts such as leather working, pottery-reflected in the standardised, wheel-thrown PGW, carpentry, con- struction and the manufacture of jewellery were also prac- tised. The manufacture of glass was also known. Weaving was still practised by women within the household. There seems to have been some development of trade and there are explicit references to the sea during this period. Further, apart from cattle serving as a medium of exchange, there are frequent references to the niska, a gold ornament, possibly representing a fixed weight of metal and the sata- mana, a weight of gold/silver, which consisted of a hundred smaller units known as the krsnala, which possibly preceded the fully developed coinage system which emerged in the 6th century BC. Towns or nagars are also referred to in the latest part of the Vedic literature under consideration. These may have been the political centres rather than centres for the manufacture of crafts. But these point to a growing socio- economic differentiation. The archaeological records also yield evidences of the beginnings of urbanisation from sites such as Ahichhatra, Kausambi and Hastinapur. Society Here the growing importance assigned to the Varna hierarchy is the most noticeable change. The Varna distinction could have been in the beginning primarily be- tween the Arya and the Dasa: the Arya Varna probably divided into senior and junior lineages-the rajanya and the vis respectively. However, gradually the system widened to include the brahmanas on the one hand and the shudras on the other. The brahmanas, the highest category, earlier merely one of the seventeen kind of priests, become virtually synonymous with priesthood during this phase.
Considerable stress is laid on the cooperation between the brahmanas and rajanyas. The declining status of the vis and the ascendancy of the kshatriyas and the brahmanas has already been noted. They both had to cooperate to ensure the 'proper' ordering of society, which implied the subordination of the vaisya and shudra to the rajanya and the brahmana on one hand, and the subordination of the rajanya in turn to the brahmanas. This was fraught with tension, as both the categories claimed pre-eminence. Nevertheless, mutual dependence served to cement ties, as the brahmana was dependent on the rajanya for material support while the latter depended on the former for legitimisation. Such legitimisation was especially important in a situation where other claims to positions of power or authority such as heredity and primogeniture, were not universally recognized. It also seems that the vis resisted the process of distancing Trom the kshatriyas to some extent, as there are numerous rituals to ensure that the vis does not abandon or turn hostile towards the kshatriyas. Simultaneously, the vis in its turn also had differentiation among themselves with the growth of settled agriculture. The more prosperous households probably became the vaisya and in the case of especially successful individuals, the gramani. The poorer members of the vis were degraded into shu- dras. The grihapatis too held yajnas, and thus, a part of their wealth gọt channelled to the brahmanas. The references to shudras point that they might háve in- cluded artisans and labourers. Slaves, both dasas and dasis are mentioned. But neither the slaves nor shudras appear to be very significant from the socio-economic point of view and both were probably involved in production only and that too to a limited extent. Shudras were denied the right to perform sacrifices. The Varna system get further tied up with the concent of Dharma, to establish a systematic functioning of the society. However, the Varna-dharma system was not properly developed in the Vedic society. There are references to certain special rites such as Vratya Stoma which were devised to incorporate outsiders within the Aryan fold. They suggest that the amalgamation of the Aryan and pre-Aryan social institutions was going on. Certain new deities, such as Rudra, become increas- ingly important and some possibly indigenous rites such as agnicayana are also seen to be incorporated within the Vedic rituals. There are clear indications that the women were being increasingly subordinated. The notion of untouchability was, however, still absent. (The institution of gotra appeared during this period. It seems to have been particularly important for brahmanas while later, as against tribal endogamy (marriage within the tribe in order to maintain the purity of the tribe), there developed a full-fledged system of gotra exogamy (marriage gotra ) , signifying widening socio - political ties . Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor and marriages could not take place between couples belonging to the same gotra . Three ashrams , i.e. stages of life were prescribed and these stages were represented by the brahmacharya ( studentship ) , grihasta ( households ) , vanaprastha ( partial retirement from houschold life by living in the forest ) . The fourth stage of life , i.e. sanyasa ( or complete retirement from active participation in the world ) was first mentioned in the Upanishads . Education which began with an investiture ceremony , Upanayan , was the prerogative of the upper classes , mostly boys . But sometimes even girls were initiated
👉 Polity
Here we see the emergence of Janapadas , such as those of the Kuru - Panchala , with their authority extending over the upper and middle reaches of the Ganga - Jamuna doab . While Jana was used in the sense of people or tribe in the Rigvedic period , now the Janapada meant the area where the tribe settled . Consequently , the nature of chiefship also changed The rajan or the chief was no longer involved in cattle raids alone , but emerged as the protector of the territory where his tribesmen settled . The rajanyas , who were of a superior lineage during the Rigvedic period , now became the kshatriyas , ie those who held power over dominions , which is the literal meaning of the word , kshatriya . The vis had to pay presentations to the kshatriya , in lieu of the latter's protections and thus the status of the vis was made subordinate to the kshatriya lineage Bali and bhaga gradually assumed forms of regular tributes and taxes The Sabha became more important than the Samiti during this period . References to rajas in the assembly or the Sabha suggests that they helped the King in his duties . The office of the raja was not based solely on birth , but the choice of rajas was restricted to the kshatriyas . In the absence of firmly established principles of heredity and primogeniture , consecratory rituals become very important for the ruler in order to assert his authority and proclaim his superiority . These sacrifices were found to be relevant in later periods when new kingdoms and new monarchs emerged . They used sacrifices to give religious legitimacy to their power The rajanya , however , was not yet a sovereign . The fact that he was elected and could be removed put severe constraints on his powers since he was answerable to the clan . Also , he did not appoint the other rajas who helped him in carrying out his duties . They were chief's in their own right A republican form of Government was evolved by the shakyas and the lichchhavis in north Bihar The nature of conflicts within the tribes also changed . Fights were no longer mere skirmishes over cattle . The acquisition of land was an important element in these disputes . The growth of population within the tribes provided the necessary impetus for acquiring more territory . Iron weapons and light - wheeled chariots driven by horses raised the efficiency of the fighters . The Mahabharata depicts an intra - clan warefare between theKauravas and the Pandavas of the Kuru clan
👉 Religion
The Vedic religious tradition is documented in the Sama and Yajurveda Samhitas and the Brahmanas , while the non - Vedic or perhaps the folk tradition is documented in the Atharvaveda . The fact that the Atharva relgious tradition was considered to be part of the Vedic literature suggests assimilation of different cultures and beliefs into the Vedic religious system Sacrifices became very important during this period , These assumed both public and private characters . The public sacrifices , eg , Rajasuya , Vajapeya , Asvamedha were conducted on a massive scale , in which the whole community participated . Some ceremonial yajnas were carried out to rejuvenate the earth and add to its fertility The rituals accompanying the sacrifices became elaborate and complicated and needed professional men — the priests . Rules or vidhis for performing each sacrifice were formulated . The offerings , and sacrifices differed according to the needs of the patron or the Yajamana . Sacrifices were now endowed with mystical symbolism and every ritual act was endowed with mysterious power . The priests became the chief beneficiaries and consequently gained in power , wealth and status . The early Vedic Gods who represented natural phenomena were slowly discarded and the personification of natural elements as divine beings became very complex . It was no longer easy to find the natural element which represented a particular God from the hymns of the later Vedic period . The changing status of the deities is in line with the change in the character of the tribes from pastoral to sedentary agricultural groups . Two prominent early Vedic Gods , Indra and Agni lost their importance . Prajapati , the creater became important since creation myths are important in the agrarian people . Rudra , a minor deity in Rigveda became important and Vishnu was conceived as the preserver and protector of the people . Pushan . who protected cattle in the carly Vedic period , now became the God of the shudras . The Atharvaveda recommended widely prevalent , witch craft , spells and magical rites to invoke the Gods of Vedic tradition for reasons which were trivial and individualistic . The Atharvan priests officiated in these religious practices . Many godlings and spirits such as pischachas and rakshasas and so on ( some malevolent and some benevolent ) were invoked either to bring good fortune or to cause havoc and destruction to one's friends and foes , respectively . The Ashvins were entrusted with the protection of agriculture and the killing of rats . Savitri was summoned through prayers to fix a place for a new house . Pushan was invoked to bring harmony and safe delivery of babies , while Surya was invoked to remove demons Some symbolic objects began to be worshipped and signs of idolatry are noticed in later Vedic times .
The doctrines of Karma, Maya, transmigration, identi- fying of individual soul with the Universal soul, and Mukti, which are the foundations of the different systems elaborated by later writers and accepted as the main tenets Hinduism. find their first expression in the Upanishads, which came up at the end of this period. One of the most famous one is the Chhandogya Upanishad. Thus the materialistic aspect of the religion was discarded to raise religion to the realm of philosophy. Most upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brah- mins and rajoa. Occasionally there was a woman thinker. such as Gargi, who participated in debates in royal courts Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, Jabali. He was a student of a brahmin teacher named Gautama; Many of the ideas of the upanishads were later developed by Shankracharya.
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